Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, December 1997, Pages 38-41

Issues in the News

Compiled by Shawn L. Twing

ARABIAN PENINSULA

Gulf Needs $100 Billion for Oil Projects:

The six member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)—Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates—need to invest nearly $100 billion in their oil and gas industries to keep up with foreign and domestic demand for energy, according to a study published in the United Arab Emirates business weekly Emirates Today. The study, by Khaled Al-Fayez, chief executive officer of the Gulf Investment Corporation, reports that an additional "$35 billion is needed for petrochemical projects." Al-Fayez recommended that GCC governments encourage the private sector to participate in these projectsrather than try to fund them on their own.

Hughes Finalizes Satellite Deal:

Hughes, U.S. electronics giant, was selected in September to build the Arab world's first mobile telephone satellite after a lengthy competition with Aerospatiale of France and U.S. defense giant Lockheed Martin. Al Thuraya Satellite Telecommunications Company, based in the United Arab Emirates, signed the 12-year, $1.2 billion contract with Hughes Sept. 15 in Dubai. Al Thuraya board chairman Muhammad Hassan Omran said the contract included "the manufacture of two satellites, one delivered in orbit [to be launched in a geostationary orbit above the Indian Ocean] and one in ground storage. The contract is also for one primary gateway in the UAE, including satellite control and network control and some 250,000 handsets," he added.

Personal Computer Market Surges:

The personal computer (PC) market in the Arab world expanded by 25 percent in 1996 with the delivery of 337,000 units, up from 270,000 in 1995, the English-language daily Saudi Gazette reported in September. Gulf countries alone accounted for 205,000 PC purchases in 1996, led by Saudi Arabia's purchase of 105,000 units. Second in the Arab world was Egypt, which accounted for 100,000 units. Encouraging the growth of the personal computer market has been a substantial reduction in prices, with continued price decreases predicted in the near future. According to Joseph Hanania, marketing manager for Compaq computers, "The Middle East market is directly influenced by PC prices in large markets such as the USA, Europe and Asia. As prices in these markets continue to decline, the Middle East will witness PC price reductions as well."

GCC Sets Up Consultative Council:

The six-member Gulf Cooperation Council announced the formation of a 30-member consultative (shura) council, the English-language dailyArab News reported Aug. 31. Each member state will nominate five members of the council,which will advise GCC leaders on local, regional and international issues. GCC Secretary-General Jameel Al-Hujeilan described the new shura council as "one of the most important achievements of the GCC in its 15-year history."

Gulf Budget Deficits Drop Sharply:

Gulf Arab oil producers have slashed budget deficits since the 1990-1991 Gulf war, industry analysts reported in Abu Dhabi Aug. 18. From a record high of some 30 percent of gross domestic product in 1990, current year deficits are expected to be three to four percent, despite continued high spending by GCC countries. "The performance of the public and private sectors so far this year indicates Gulf governments are spending generously," a banker told the Saudi Gazette. "Yet I think the deficit will be low by the end of the year, as revenues have already shot far above projections."

USAF Deploys Aircraft to Bahrain:

The United States deployed to Bahrain an air expeditionary force of some 20 aircraft in September to reinforce U.S. forces already in the region, Jane's Defence Weekly reported. Aircraft including F-15Es and F-16s from the 366th Air Expeditionary Wing based in Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho, were sent to the region to continue "Operation Southern Watch" enforcing the no-fly-zone over southern Iraq, according to a USAF statement. U.S. forces also will improve interoperability with GCC forces, Jane's reported. Bahrain also asked the U.S. government either to provide 20 existing F-16A/Bs with additional upgrade packages or 10 new F-16C/Ds for an estimated cost of $303 million.

U.S. Security Concerns in Kuwait:

The American Embassy in Kuwait warned American citizens and businesses on Aug. 27 that it had received an anonymous warning of "a possible attack against an American location in Kuwait on Aug. 28." An American business executive in Kuwait told Arab News that his company had "issued strict instructions on receiving packages and visitors. Kuwait has been a safe place for Americans; but we cannot leave things to chance." There are some 8,000 Americans in Kuwait, including several hundred military personnel on training exercises and monitoring Iraqi compliance with U.N. resolutions that ended the Gulf war.

Kuwait Requests U.S. Helicopters:

Kuwait submitted in September a request for 16 Apache Longbow attack helicopters with armaments and spare parts worth some $800 million, Jane's Defence Weekly reported. Kuwait was expected to request an armed version of the Black Hawk transport helicopter, but instead opted for the next-generation attack helicopter made by St. Louis-based McDonnell Douglas.

Oman Economy Expected to Grow:

Oman's economy is expected to grow an estimated four percent in 1997, demonstrating the efficacy of recent economic reform measures. According to a report by the Abu Dhabi-based Arab Monetary Fund, Oman's petroleum sector earnings decreased nearly five percent in 1997, but overall earnings are poised to increase an estimated four percent. Economists attribute Oman's success to large-scale economic reform measures that include privatization, investment incentives and improved taxation laws. "The oil sector is giving ground to the non-oil sector as a result of our economic diversification plans and other reforms," said Mahmud Jarwani, chief executive of Muscat Securities Market.

Qatar to Spend $15 Billion for Gas:

Qatar will invest some $15 billion over the next three years to develop and expand its natural gas and industrial infrastructure, Reuters news service reported from Doha. "This investment will be in addition to the $11.5 billion which we have already spent or committed on liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects, and expanding chemical plants and a refinery," a Ministry of Energy and Industry official said. With a land area slightly less than Connecticut, Qatar has the third largest natural gas reserves in the world (after Russia and Iran) and has the single largest natural gas deposit on earth.

Qatar Receives Warships, Aircraft:

Qatar took delivery of the first two of four fast attack naval vessels in September built by the UK firm Vosper Thornycroft. Following sea trials and three months of crew training in the UK, the QENS Barzan and QENS Hawar arrived for duty in Doha, Jane's Defence Weekly reported.

Meanwhile, Qatar also received the first 3 of 12 French Mirage 2000-5 advanced combat aircraft made by Dassault Aviation. The additional aircraft are expected to be delivered by the end of 1998, the U.S. trade weekly Aviation Week & Space Technology reported. The total purchase price for the aircraft, agreed to in July 1994, was approximately $1.25 billion.

Saudi Bourse to Hit Record:

The volume of trading on Saudi Arabia's stock exchange is expected to reach an all-time record in 1997, the Saudi Gazette reported in August. According to industry analysts, Saudi Arabia's bourse, the largest in the region, grew some 162 percent in the first half of 1997 as compared to 1996. Analysts cited by the Gazette said that the government's plan to privatize some parts of the public sector suggests that the Saudi corporate sector is "poised to have a bright future."

Hughes Wins Saudi Contract:

Hughes Aircraft Company won a seven-month contract extension valued at some $120 million to support the Royal Saudi Air Force Peace Shield system, the trade weekly Defense News reported in September. Hughes delivered the Peace Shield system in 1995 and has continued to provide maintenance and training for its central command operations center, 5 regional centers, 17 long-range radars and several remote facilities all designed to maintain sovereignty in Saudi airspace.

Huge UAE Aircraft Purchase Still Open:

A British-led offer to exchange oil for aircraft has caused the UAE to postpone its decision to purchase up to 80 advanced combat jets worth an estimated $6 billion, Defense News reported in September. According to the Defense News report, the four-nation consortium (Britain, Germany, Italy and Spain) offering the Eurofighter 2000 aircraft to the UAE is willing to purchase a fixed amount of petroleum from the Emirates at above-market prices to help offset the cost of the aircraft purchase. This bold gesture has further complicated efforts by U.S. defense giant Lockheed Martin, which is offering its F-16 fighter. The Washington Times reported in July that Lockheed Martin had won the contract, but UAE officials later denied it.

FERTILE CRESCENT

Jordan, Israel Ink Aqaba Agreement:

Israel's El Al airline made its maiden flight to the Jordanian airport in Aqaba Sept. 1, one day after Israel and Jordan signed an accord to share the facility serving the twin Red Sea resorts of Eilat and Aqaba. The agreement is the first phase in the planned construction of a new joint airport to be built by both countries. In the interim, both Israel and Jordan will use the Aqaba airfield to help alleviate serious overcrowding in Israel's airport just over the border in Eilat.

Syria to Produce Scud Bomblets:

Syria will begin producing chemical bomblets "within months," according to officials from the U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Citing BMDO officials, Jane's Defence Weekly reported in September that Syria plans to load the bomblets into the warhead compartments of Scud-C missiles to simulate a cluster warhead, making interception and destruction more difficult. Syria is expected to have taken delivery of 60 Scud-Cs from North Korea, to supplement 200 Scud-Bs already in its arsenal, many of which are thought to be armed with the highly toxic VX nerve agent.

Syrian Paper Reports Corruption:

In an unprecedented investigation into official corruption, the Syrian government newspaper Tishrin reported in August that a senior government official forged a minister's signature to import livestock from Russia. Although the Syrian paper didn't name the alleged perpetrator, Germany's Deutsche Press Agentur press agency identified him as an undersecretary in the Ministry of Agriculture. Agriculture Minister Assad Mustafa said that he was unaware of the incident, and did not agree with importing Russian livestock because of unknown health conditions there.

Turkey to Lift Emergency Rule:

Turkey will suspend emergency rule over the mainly Kurdish southeastern part of the country at the end of 1997 or in early 1998, Turkey's deputy prime minister announced in August. Emergency rule has been in effect in Turkey's southeastern provinces since 1987, giving Turkish police wide latitude in their battle against Kurdish guerrillas.

Turkish General Threatens to Bomb Cyprus Missile Site:

An anonymous senior Turkish general told journalists that Turkey will attack Cyprus if the Greek Cypriot-led government of Cyprus tries to deploy a Russian anti-aircraft missile system. Speaking during a reception in Ankara, the unnamed official said, "If the missiles reach the Greek Cypriots despite our efforts to prevent their deployment, the government will make a decision and we will hit them," Agence France Presse reported. The general's comments followed an announcement earlier this year by Cypriot officials that they will purchase Russia's advanced S-300 anti-aircraft missile system for some $600 million. The S-300 is capable of denying Turkish aircraft access to Cypriot airspace.

Iranian Arms to Hezbollah:

The Lebanese Shi'i guerrilla organization Hezbollah has taken delivery from Iran of longer-range rockets, Israeli security officials confirmed in August. Hezbollah, which has launched Russsian-made 122-millimeter Katyusha rockets against Israeli positions in south Lebanon and into northern Israeli towns, now has improved versions of the weapon with a range of approximately 40 kilometers. This places Haifa within range of Hezbollah gunners, the Jerusalem Post reported.

Lebanon, Syria Hold Trade Talks:

Syrian Prime Minister Mahmud Al Zohbi and his Lebanese counterpart, Rafiq Hariri, met in Damascus in August to discuss ways to boost bilateral trade between their respective countries. Among the issues discussed were Lebanese intermediaries, currently banned by Syria, for Syrian imports, and Syrian access to Lebanese agricultural products markets, stopped after Lebanon passed a law in June reserving its markets for foodstuffs for domestic producers.

IRAN/IRAQ

Iranian Cabinet Gets First Woman:

The first female deputy minister was appointed Aug. 31 to the cabinet of recently elected Iranian President Muhammad Khatami. Culture Minister Attaollah Mohajerani appointed Aazam Nuri as his deputy for legal and parliamentary affairs, Iran's official news agency reported. Nuri, a former legal general director of the culture ministry, is the second woman named to a high office under the Khatami government. One week earlier Khatami appointed 36-year-old biochemist Massumeh Ebtekar as vice president and head of Iran's Environmental Protection Organization. Official statistics show that more than half of Khatami's estimated 20 million votes came from women, who were a major factor in his landslide victory over parliament speaker Ali Akbar Nateq Nuri.

Iraq Lifts Ban on Iranian Visitors:

The Iraqi embassy in Tehran began issuing visas to Iranians Sept. 4 for the first time in 17 years, Baghdad radio reported. An Iraqi spokesman said that the decision to issue visas, which had been suspended since the Iran-Iraq war began in 1980, was based on "humanitarian principles." "We hope that Iranian visitors will abide by the laws in force in Iraq and avoid any damage to this initiative," the spokesman said.

Clinton Associate Arrested in Arms Sale to Iraq:

U.S. Customs officials arrested a Little Rock, AR-based associate of President Bill Clinton for an attempted sale of military helicopters to Iraq, the Saudi Gazette reported in August. Robert Fairchild, a nine-year Democratic veteran of the Arkansas legislature who ran an unsuccessful 1994 bid for lieutenant governor, allegedly is part of an international plot to sell 34 American-made helicopters to Iraq. The scheme involved the transfer of the helicopters from storage in Canada. Fairchild was arrested July 18 in a Florida hotel with associate Donald Proven of Chicago.

Iranian War Games on Afghan Border:

Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps held live-fire military exercises along the Iran-Afghanistan border, Jane's Defence Weekly reported. The maneuvers were part of a build-up of forces in the region that began with an exercise weeks earlier. Although the exercises are aimed at a "fictitious enemy," according to Brigadier General Nur Ali Shushtari, they are thought to be an effort to curb the flow of illicit drugs, particularly opium, from Afghanistan and Pakistan through Iran to Turkey and Europe. There have been accusations by Iran, according to Jane's, that Afghanistan's Taliban militia has been financing its war effort with drug money.

Iran Wants Better Arab Ties:

Iran's new government has placed improving ties with its Gulf Arab neighbors at the top of its foreign policy agenda in an effort to slow devastating arms races in the region. During a September meeting with foreign diplomats in Tehran, newly appointed Foreign Minister Kamal Kharazi said Iran is "ready to engage in serious dialogue with its Gulf neighbors to free the area of weapons of mass destruction and establish peace and security." Kharazi's sentiments were echoed by other Iranian officials including the commander of Iran's Revolutionary Guards, General Mosen Rezai. Iran's new defense minister Ali Shamkhani said a week earlier. "The imposing presence of the U.S. forces must end. This will undoubtedly lead to a reduction in tension [in the Gulf]," he added.

ISRAEL/PALESTINE

Noam Friedman Institutionalized:

An Israeli military court found Noam Friedman, the Israeli soldier who opened fire with an M-16 assault rifle in a crowded market in Hebron last Jan. 1, wounding six Palestinians, unfit for trial, the Jerusalem Post reported in September. A team of Israeli psychiatrists initially found Friedman mentally unstable several months ago, but their findings were disputed by a second evaluation. Friedman, 22, pled guilty to charges of attempted murder and mutiny, and said he fired into the crowd to prevent Israel from handing land over to the Palestinian Authority. He has been committed to a mental institution.

Arrow-2 Missile Fails Test:

The U.S.-Israel Arrow anti-tactical ballistic missile failed an Aug. 24 test, malfunctioning seconds after launch. "A short while after its normal takeoff, a failure developed in the missile," an Israeli Ministry of Defense statement said, prompting a decision to abort the test and destroy the missile. The Arrow is designed to protect Israel from ballistic missiles and it has enjoyed a series of test successes recently, including a successful intercept of a simulated Scud missile. Despite the setback, Israeli officials say they still plan to deploy the system as scheduled in 1998. Although the Arrow is a joint U.S.-Israeli project that has cost the United States in excess of $700 million, the United States repeatedly has said it has no operational plans for the Arrow system, which is not mobile enough to meet U.S. theater missile defense requirements.

Israel Shells Lebanon, Thwarts U.N.:

Israeli gunners shelled a hill in south Lebanon Aug. 29, allegedly to prevent United Nations officials from recovering the bodies of four members of Lebanon's Amal militia who were killed in a gun battle with Israeli soldiers the previous day. According to news service reports, Israel fired three 155 mm artillery shells outside the village of Ghandouriyeh to prevent 15 Finnish soldiers from the U.N. Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) from entering the area where four Israeli soldiers were burned to death the day before, after Israeli artillery and air attacks started a brush fire. After the Finnish soldiers withdrew to the village, 12 more shells fell intermittently on the area. Israeli officials accused UNIFIL forces of interfering in their efforts to save their comrades caught in the fire. U.N. official Timur Goksel rejected the charge, saying that Israeli soldiers forced their way through a UNIFIL checkpoint at gunpoint.

Israel Will Not Ratify Chemical Weapons Treaty:

Israel announced Sept. 4 that although it has signed the Chemical Weapons Convention, it will not ratify the treaty because of its "unique strategic environment," Germany's DPA press agency reported. The Chemical Weapons Convention bans the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction. Israel is thought to have a sizable chemical weapons program. Some 165 countries, including Israel, signed the CWC, but only 88 have ratified it so far.

Settlers Shoot at USAID Workers:

Jewish settlers threw stones and one fired a gun at Palestinians working on a project in Hebron sponsored by the United States Agency for International Development, news agencies reported Sept. 2. According to the reports, Palestinian laborers renovating Shuhada Street in Hebron have been attacked repeatedly by Jewish settlers throwing stones. In the latest incident, a settler apparently fired an automatic rifle at the laborers. U.S. State Department spokesman James Foley responded, saying, "These attacks on USAID workers are simply unacceptable and we call on the Israeli authorities to ensure the security of those working on the road, so that it may be completed, as called for in the Hebron agreement." David Moorhead, a U.S. engineer working on the project, said Israeli police had agreed to protect the workers, but failed to make any arrests after arriving at the site.

Palestinian Organization Publishes Confiscation, Demolition Statistics:

Israel has confiscated more than 670,000 dunums of Palestinian land since the Oslo accords were signed in September 1993, according to a recently released report published by the Palestinian civil and legal rights organization Muassasat Al Mujtama Al Madani. Other statistics, all published by the Palestinian English-language weekly Jerusalem Times, include 210,100 trees uprooted and 1,599 homes demolished. The report stressed that Israel still controls some 97 percent of land in the West Bank and 40 percent of land in the Gaza Strip.

Israeli Panel Recommends Massive Land Grab:

A commission headed by Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu's chief of staff recommended in August that Palestinians be prevented from taking back West Bank land expropriated from them by Israeli authorities. Chief of Staff Avigdor Lieberman told Israel's Hebrew-language daily Ha'aretz that some 700,000 acres of "state land," an Israeli euphemism for land taken illegally from Palestinian residents for use in building Jews-only settlements, have already been reclaimed by Palestinian farmers and squatters. He recommended that Israel wage "legal action" against Arab construction on these lands, including declaring some areas army "firing zones" to prevent entry. Azmy Bashara, an Israeli Arab member of Israel's Knesset, responded saying, "It's not possible to send one Jew to create a farm and prevent dozens of Arabs from using land that they need. The state confiscates land from Arabs, declares it state lands and then uses it to build homes for Jews. When Arabs act, they call it land theft. When it's Jews, they call it legal construction."

Closure Costs $4 to $6 Million Per Day:

Israel's closure of the West Bank and Gaza costs the Palestinian economy $4 million to $6 million per day, the World Bank announced in September, and threatens the projected 8 percent growth rate for 1997. Palestinian sources say that the total loss in income and trade is in excess of $8 million per day. In response to the latest round of Israeli closures, Egypt, Jordan and the United Arab Emirates pledged $14 million in aid.

NORTH AFRICA

Algeria Adopts Three-Year Economic Reform Plan:

Algeria's parliament adopted a comprehensive economic reform plan in August aimed at speeding up privatization, reforming the financial sector and creating more than a million new jobs, Agence France Presse reported. According to the plan drawn up by the government of Prime Minister Ahmed Auyahia and supported by the National Democratic Rally, Algeria hopes to achieve growth rates of 7 percent by 2000, compared to 4 percent in 1996. The plan includes sweeping privatization, including areas formerly off the table—electricity, mining and postal services—and the creation of 1.2 million jobs for Algeria's estimated 2.2 million unemployed. Parliament passed the plan 245 to 72.

Egyptian Court Sentences Israeli:

An Egyptian state security court on Aug. 31 sentenced an Israeli Druze to 15 years in jail with hard labor for spying for Israel. Azam Azam, an Israeli textile worker employed in Egypt, was charged with making criminal arrangements to spy for Israel's Mossad intelligence agency. Azam's Egyptian accomplice, Emad Abdel Hamid Ismail, was sentenced to life in prison, which carries a maximum 25-year penalty. Two Israeli women, Zahra Youssef Greiss and Mona Ahmed Shawahna, were tried in absentia and sentenced to life in prison on the same charges. Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu assailed the sentence as an "outrage." Azam's brother Sami told Reuters, "We are very surprised at the verdict. We are going to go to President Mubarak and ask him to intervene to make the sentence lighter."

Japan, Egypt to Build "Bridge of Peace":

Egypt and Japan signed an agreement Aug. 25 to build a $160 million, 220-foot tall "bridge of peace" across the Suez Canal. Ossama Al Ashri, an assistant on Japanese affairs to the Egyptian foreign minister, told reporters in Cairo that Japan will provide $100 million for the project, with Egypt contributing $60 million. According to the agreement, Egypt will build the access to the bridge, while Japan will build the bridge itself. Scheduled for completion by 2001, the bridge will alleviate projected demand of 50,000 to 60,000 cars crossing the canal daily in 2017. Currently, road traffic is limited to 22,000 cars per day.

Libya Recognizes Palestinian Passport:

Libya has decided to recognize passports issued by the Palestinian National Authority, the Palestinian interior ministry in Gaza City announced in August. "Libya has informed us that it will recognize the Palestinian passport, making it the 77th nation to do so," said Deputy Interior Minister Ahmed Tamimi. The announcement followed a mid-August visit to Libya by PLO official Zakaria Agha to discuss cooperation between the two countries.

Tunisia Recalls Envoy to Israel:

Tunisia recalled its representatives in Israel in August following a continued breakdown in the Palestinian-Israeli peace process. Israel's mass-circulation daily Yediot Ahronot quoted Khemis Jinhawi, who runs Tunisia's interest section in Tel Aviv, saying, "I hope very much to return here one day as an ambassador, when the political situation improves and progresses. But as far as it is known, these issues are not dependent on our side." Israel's Foreign Ministry dismissed the departure of Jinhawi, his wife and two daughters as a routine diplomatic rotation. Oman earlier recalled its trade representative from Tel Aviv. Both envoys left before the August Arab League meeting that sharply criticized Israel's handling of the peace process and failure to live up to its commitments under the Oslo accords.

THE SUBCONTINENT

Pakistan Celebrates 50th Anniversary:

Pakistan celebrated its 50th anniversary of independence from British rule Aug. 14 with speeches, fireworks and rallies in Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore and Peshawar. Celebrations were marred by violence in the port city of Karachi, where two people were killed and dozens wounded during a speech by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif. News agencies reported that Sharif motioned for the estimated 20,000 spectators to come forward toward the podium, saying, "Security is in the hands of God. Let the people come close." Shortly after the crowd broke through police cordons, dozens of people were trampled. As police tried to regain order, at least one policeman fired into the crowd, killing two and wounding others. Sharif used a flag-raising ceremony in Islamabad to call on India to engage in serious dialogue with Pakistan to end their bitter rivalry. "The conflict and arms race between [India and Pakistan] wasted billions of dollars. It also deprived the peoples of the two countries of peace and prosperity. I hope that India will respond with sincerity by withdrawing its forces from occupied Kashmir and putting an end to atrocities there and hence pave the way for establishing lasting peace in the region," the Pakistani prime minister said.

Pakistan, India Exchange Fire:

India and Pakistan exchanged heavy artillery fire along the disputed line of control in Jammu and Kashmir for four consecutive days in August, Jane's Defence Weekly reported. Indian officials claimed that 70 Pakistani soldiers were killed during the exchange which began, according to the Indians, when Pakistani forces attacked Indian troops along the line of control. Pakistan denied any unusual activity, saying that India was trying to sabotage peace talks scheduled to begin a month later.

U.N. Says Afghan Opium Production Up:

Despite assurances from Afghanistan's Taliban militia that they would crack down on opium growing, production surged an estimated 25 percent over last year, with nearly all of the increase in areas controlled by the Taliban, a United Nations International Drug Control Program official said in September. In a report in The New York Times, the U.N. estimates that Afghan opium production increased to some 2,800 metric tons this year, up from 2,300 metric tons in 1996. Last year Afghanistan was the second largest (after Myanmar) exporter of opium, the prime ingredient in heroin production. U.N. officials say that the Taliban, which controls 22 of Afghanistan's 32 provinces, now control approximately 96 percent of its opium-growing areas. International officials and journalists cited by The New York Times claim that the Taliban not only tolerate opium growth, but tax it for much-needed revenue to continue their war effort.