Ramadan: New Technologies Produce New Debates

By Greg Noakes

Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, prescribed by God in the Qur'an as a period of fasting, is the time of year when Muslims living outside the Islamic world face the most problems and arouse the most curiosity among non-Muslims. The problems arise from the necessity of forgoing food and drink during the daytime, while the curiosity stems from the Muslim community's uncertainty as to when the month begins and ends.

The entire month is a time of moral reflection and deepened piety for Muslims, for whom fasting is one of the "five pillars" of their faith (along with the declaration of that faith, prayer five times daily, almsgiving, and pilgrimage to Mecca for those who have the means to do so). The start and completion of the month, as well as each day of fasting, are determined by the motion of the moon and of the sun, in accordance with both the Qur'an and the sunna, or example, of the Prophet Muhammad. Advances in astronomy and telecommunications technology, instead of facilitating that calculation, have produced a new set of issues for Muslims to consider when computing the beginning and end of the month.

The start of the month of Ramadan is determined by the sighting of the new crescent moon, or hilal, which marks the beginning of each lunar month in the Islamic calendar. If the sky is cloudy, believers count the previous lunar month as 30 days and begin the Ramadan fast the following day. The Eid al-Fib, marking the end of the month, also is determined by the hilal. By using the hilal as the basis of the calendar, even Muslims who live in isolated areas, are illiterate or have no access to printed calendars can determine the first day of Ramadan and the eid.

In the past, these dates were determined by local authorities and scholars, or ulama, on the basis of sightings of the hilal by credible eyewitnesses. At times, because of variable weather conditions and different criteria applied to crescent sightings, one village might begin fasting on one day while a neighboring village started the following day. As long as each individual community agreed on its own calculation of the calendar, there were few difficulties.

With advances in scientific technology and the spread of instantaneous telecommunications, however, new dilemmas have arisen. Some Muslims argue that because astronomers now are able to calculate the phases of the moon quite accurately, the physical sighting of the hilal no longer is necessary to determine the beginning of the lunar month. The Qur'an makes it clear that the hilal crescents "are but signs to mark fixed periods of time in [the affairs of men," and some scholars suggest that the certainties of today's mathematical calculations are a better determinant than the uncertainties of eyewitness sightings. The start of Ramadan is determined by the sighting of the new crescent moon.

Other scholars argue for the criterion of a physical sighting of the hilal in keeping with the practice of the Prophet and his Companions. In one hadith, or tradition of the Prophet, Muhammad is quoted as saying, "Do not fast until you see the new moon, and do not break your fast till you see it; but if the weather is cloudy calculate when it should appear."

Some ulama have proposed a compromise by beginning the lunar month only with a hilal sighting which conforms to mathematical projections, while rejecting sightings which contradict scientific calculations. Finally, some authorities hold that the new month can begin when the moon sets after sunset.

All this produces considerable confusion. In the past, eyewitness accounts were a local matter. Now, with improved means of communication, news of a sighting in Singapore can be quickly transmitted to Syria, Sudan or Sacramento.

Telephone and fax communication means that Muslims in the U.S. and Canada know what ulama in Asia and the Middle East have decided with regard to Ramadan long before the sun has set in North America. They differ over what to do with this information. Some believers in Europe and the Americas follow their local mosque leadership, some immigrant Muslims follow the decisions made in their home countries, and others rely on the pronouncements made in Mecca, Medina or elsewhere.

It is possible, therefore, for Muslims in one area to begin their Ramadan fast on three different days, depending on the criteria and the authorities they choose to follow. Just such a situation arose last Ramadan in North America. Authorities in Saudi Arabia declared March 4, 1992 to be the first day of Ramadan, and a number of American and Canadian Muslims followed this decision.

Egyptian scholars declared March 5 to be the first of Ramadan because of the "moonset after sunset" that occurred that day. Some Americans therefore also opted for March 5, though others waited until the hilal was sighted in North America on March 6. Most Muslims are distressed that the community is so split at the time of the year when it should be most unified.

The Daily Fast

Compared to the problem of determining when the month of fasting begins and ends, the issue of deciding when the daily fast begins is minor. The fast is defined by the rising and setting of the sun. It begins every morning at the time of imsak, when, according to the Qur'an, "the white thread appears distinct from the black thread of dawn." Some have interpreted this to refer to the ability to distinguish a white thread from a black thread by the dawn's light. Most Muslims agree, however, that the verse actually enjoins believers to cease eating and drinking when the thin light of dawn is distinct against the black line of the horizon. Imsak comes roughly two hours before sunrise. If tar, or breaking of the fast, occurs at sunset and is heralded by the call to salat al-maghrib, or sunset prayer. In some cities like Cairo and Istanbul the tradition of announcing if tar by firing a cannon is still followed.

There is unanimity over the requirements of and exemptions to Ramadan. Muslims may not eat, drink, smoke or have sexual relations from daybreak to sunset during the month of fasting, which this year lasts from late February to late March. Exempted from fasting are children, the aged, the sick, travelers, pregnant or nursing women, and others whose health might be harmed by fasting.

Although the fast is the focal point of the month, Ramadan is also marked by other rituals and practices. In addition to sumptuous meals, Ramadan nights are a time for special prayers, the salat al-tarawih, and Muslims are encouraged to read or recite the complete Qur'an over the course of the month. Muhammad spent the last 10 days of Ramadan in the mosque engaged in spiritual contemplation, and some Muslims today also follow this practice of i'tikaf. One of the last odd-numbered nights of the month is the Lailat al-Qadr, the "Night of Power," when the Prophet first received revelation and which is "better than a thousand months," according to the Qur'an.

Muslims are also required to give a sum in charity before the end of Ramadan, with the head of every family responsible for this sadaqat al-fib for each member of his or her household. This supplements the encouragement to believers to pay their zakat, alms equal to at least two and a half percent of their property, during Ramadan.

The end of the fast is celebrated on the first day of the following month. The Eid al-Fib, or Feast of Fast-breaking, is an occasion for communal prayer, joyful festivities and satisfaction in fulfilling one's obligations to God.

Despite the hardship of fasting, most Muslims look forward to Ramadan. The evening fast-breaking meals are a time of heightened sociability. The pre-dawn meals, or sabur, are occasions for family togetherness. Shopping expeditions to buy food, clothing and gifts for the Eid al-Fib are among the highlights of the year for children.

The month also is an occasion for reflection and purification, when believers seek to overcome physical needs and desires through self-discipline and concentrate instead on spiritual matters. Fasting recalls the plight of the poor and hungry, and by demonstrating the limits of human endurance reminds Muslims of their reliance on a power greater than themselves. There is a unique quality of baraka, or blessing, to Ramadan which is augmented by the family and community solidarity produced by both shared deprivation and celebration.

Because Muslims agree on the practice and importance of Ramadan, and share in the spirit of celebration and blessing which it produces, the debates over the calculation of the lunar calendar may seem like petty bickering over minutiae.

The disagreements, however, are in some ways symptomatic of larger issues. There is, for example, disagreement among Muslims about how closely they must follow the traditions and methodology of the past and how they can adjust their religious practices to meet changing modern conditions, not only in terms of the lunar calendar but also with regard to dress, diet, politics, economics, and interpretation of legal and theological texts.

The question of authority in Islam is also an old one: should Muslims look to the state and its religious functionaries for guidance, or turn to respected ulama who may hold no official office or position? With traditionalist, conservative, activist, reformist and secularist schools of thought, even reliance on the opinions of respected scholars is unlikely to produce consensus. Finally, there are conflicting concerns about the need for unity among Muslims and the preservation of diversity, one of the community's greatest strengths.

Fortunately, Muslims are in pursuit of a common goal when it comes to the calculation of their calendar. Everyone agrees that Ramadan and the eid should be calculated both accurately and in a manner that fulfills all of the requirements of the shariah, or Islamic law.

The challenge is to reach consensus among scholars and the Muslim community at large on some of the ever more pressing problems of Muslims living all over the globe, some as majorities and others as minorities, in a modern era when change is measured over the span of decades rather than centuries.

Greg Noakes, an American Muslim, is the news editor of the Washington Report.